INFORMATION PROCESSING IN LEARNING AND MEMORY | DR. GEETANJALI PAREEK

Memory is one of the chief areas of cognition, studied by researchers. There are many hypotheses and suggestions as to how information processing in learning and memory takes place, and many new theories have been built upon established beliefs in this area. Currently, there is widespread consensus on several aspects of information processing; however, there are many disagreements in reference to specifics on how the brain actually codes or manipulates information as it is stored in memory.

Schacter and Tulving (as cited in Driscoll, 2001), state that “a memory system is defined in terms of its brain mechanisms, the kind of information it processes, and the principles of its operation”. This suggests that memory is the combined total of all mental experiences. In this light, memory is a built store that must be accessed in some way in order for effective recall or retrieval to occur. It is premised on the belief that memory is a multi-faceted, if not multi-staged, system of connections and representations that encompass a lifetime’s accumulation of perceptions.

Eliasmith (2001), defines memory as the “general ability, or faculty that enables us to interpret the perceptual world to help organise responses to changes that take place in the world”. It is implied by this definition that there must be a tangible structure in which to incorporate new stimuli into memory. The form of this structure has been the source of much debate, and there seems to be no absolute agreement on what shape a memory structure actually takes, but there are many theories on what constitutes both the memory structure and the knowledge component.

Winn and Snyder (2001), attribute the idea that memory is organised into structures to the work of Sir Frederick Charles Bartlett. Bartlett’s work established two consistent patterns regarding recall.

1. First, memory is inaccurate.

2. Second inaccuracy of memory is systematic, though, fetched about a revolution in traditional thinking about memory. A systematic difference makes permissible the scientific study of inaccuracy, and this suggestion led to an entirely new mode of thought on memory. What described systematic inaccuracies in memory were the intervening influences of previous information and the experiences of the person. This demonstrates that knowledge units are not simply stored and then left alone, but that they are retained, manipulated, and changed as new knowledge is acquired.

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Model of Learning:

Information theorists approach learning primarily through a study of memory. The following Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) model of learning presents a well-established paradigm of cognitive-behavioural psychology. The model articulates the limited capacity of “working memory.” Working memory is tasked with the burden of processing incoming information, transferring information to long-term memory and retrieval of information from long-term memory. The concept of “cognitive load” — the amount of work imposed on working memory by a learning task — is based on observations of the functions of working memory.

Information processing in memory can be viewed from a computer model perspective. Like the computer, the human mind takes in information, performs operations on it to change its form and content, stores the information, retrieves it when needed, and generates responses to it. Processing involves encoding (gathering and representing information); storage (holding information); and retrieval (getting the information when needed). The entire system is guided by a control process that determines how and when information will flow through the system. Some theorists suggest that the operation of the brain resembles a large number of computers all operating at the same time (in parallel).

Development of Memory and Information Processing:

As previously stated, cognition is the encoding, structuring, storing, retrieving, using, or otherwise learning knowledge (Neisser, 1967). There are important developmental aspects for each of these activities. According to Flavell et al. (2002), from an information processing perspective some of the most important are:

• Brain changes brought about by biological maturation or experience;

• Increased processing capacity, speed, and efficiency as a result of both maturation and knowledge development;

• Modifications of connections in a neural network;

• New emergent concepts arising from repeated self-organisation as a result of adapting to the demands of a changing environment; and • Increased capacity for problem-solving and metacognition.

Encoding - Encoding occurs during the initial processing of a stimulus or event. Maturation and experience influence this process. In terms of maturation, Dempster (1981), suggests that the adult capacity for short-term memory of 5 + 2 digits might be as much as 2 digits lower for children aged 5 and 1 digit lower for children aged 9. As for experience, in a series of well-known studies of expertise, novices remember new information less well than experts (e.g., Chi, 1978; Schneider, Korkel, & Winert, 1989). One of the most important differences between novices and experts is the structure and organisation of domain-specific knowledge.

Structuring and Organising - Structuring and organising information occur as the learner processes and stores information. The learner’s ability changes over time as a result of both maturation and experience. When presented with information they are asked to remember, younger children do not rehearse information in order to remember it. As they get into school, they begin to develop or are taught various strategies. At first these strategies are only used when prompted by someone else, but as the child becomes more competent in their use and uses them more frequently, the child will increasingly use the strategies spontaneously (Flavell et al., 2002).

One of the most important information processing capacities a child develops is the ability to organise information; this is, in turn, influenced by the child’s ability to categorise. As is the case with other information-processing capacities, this ability changes with both maturation and experience.

One of the basic types of categorisations is the grouping of specific events, ideas, people, things, etc. into concepts. Rosch and his colleagues, demonstrated two fundamental features to the development of concepts: the ease of identifying similarities of members of the concept and distinguishing differences between members that are not. For example, the development of the concept of animal would be more difficult than developing the concept of dog or cat because it would be easier to identify similarities among dogs or cats and differences between cats and dogs than it would be to identify similarities among all animals or to differentiate all animals from all plants. This has important implications as we design learning activities for children and youth that can help them develop their organisational and storage capacities.

Storage and Retrieval - How much information can be stored and retrieved relative to a stimulus or event also changes over time. For example, prior to about age 7 months an infant will not seek an object that has been shown and then removed from view. The infant has encoded the object (such as a rattle) and will reach for it, but seems to lose interest as soon as it is no longer in view. At about 7 months attains what is called “object permanence” and will begin to seek the object if it is removed from view. A series of studies by Bauer, Mandler and associates (as cited in Flavell et al., 2002) demonstrates a child’s increasing ability to perform simple multiple-act sequences. By age 13 months infants can reproduce three-act sequences; by age 24 months this has increased to five-act sequences; and by age 30 months to eight separate actions. As children gain language skills, their ability to store and recall more complex events increases. This is shown first in autobiographical accounts of daily activities and then to events they may have witnessed or heard about.

Flavell et al. (2002), made four observations about strategy development:

1) Strategy development is not linear. When developing any particular strategy, development will often stall or even regress before it becomes systematically and correctly used.

2) A strategy will continue to develop after it is first demonstrated in its mature form. This continued development may take months or even years.

3) Children show considerable variability in their use of strategies. Children often go back and forth in their use of strategies, changing strategies even after they have been found to work well.

4) Children differ in their abilities to integrate different strategies into a coherent pattern for successful learning. Children must be given ample opportunity to create successful learning programs that work for them.

REFERENCES:

Cunia, E. (2005). Cognitive learning theory. Principles of Instruction and Learning: A Web Quest. Retrieved April 2006, from http://suedstudent.syr.edu/ ~ebarrett/ide621/cognitive.htm

Galotti, K.M. (2008). Cognitive Psychology: Perception, Attention, and Memory. London: Cengage.

Goldstein, E. H. (2008). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience. London: Thomson Learning. http://www.well.com/user/smalin/miller.html]

Hunt, R. R., & Ellis, H.C. (2006). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97. [Available online from Classics in the History of Psychology:

Solso, R.L. (2006). Cognitive Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson Education.

Sternberg, R.J. (2009). Applied Cognitive Psychology: Perceiving, Learning, and Remembering. London: Cengage.

Stillings, N, Feinstein, M., Garfield, J., Rissland, E., Rosenbaum, D., Weisler, S., & Baker-Ward, L. (1987). Cognitive Science: An Introduction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press

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